Journal of Affective Disorders
Volume 54, Issue 1 , Pages 1-19 , July 1999

Is psychotherapy an effective treatment for melancholia and other severe depressive states?

Received 10 November 1998 ,Accepted 17 December 1998.

References 

  1. Akiskal HS, Rosenthal TL, Haykal RF, Lemmi H, Rosenthal RH, Scott-Strauss A. Characterological depressions: clinical and sleep EEG findings separating dysthymias from character spectrum disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1980;37:777–783
  2. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3rd ed (DSM-III. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1980;
  3. Practice guidelines for major depressive disorder in adults. In: Am J Psychiatry. 150:1993;p. 1–26
  4. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th ed (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994;
  5. Andreasen NC, Grove W, Maurer R. Cluster analysis and the classification of depression. Br J Psychiatry. 1980;137:256–265
  6. Axelson DA, Doraiswamy PM, McDonald WM, Boyko OB, Tupler LA, Patterson LJ, et al. Hypercortisolemia and hippocampal changes in depression. Psychiatr Res. 1993;47:163–173
  7. Barden N, Reul JMHM, Holsboer F. Do antidepressants stabilize mood through actions on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical system?. Trends Neurosci. 1995;18:6–11
  8. Beck AT, Ward CH, Mendelson M, Mack J, Erbaugh J. An inventory for measuring depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1961;4:561–571
  9. Beck AT, Hollon SD, Young JF, Bedrosian RC, Budenz D. Treatment of depression with cognitive therapy and amitriptyline. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1985;42:142–148
  10. Beck AT, Rush AJ, Shaw BF, Emery G. Cognitive therapy of depression: A treatment manual. New York: Guilford Press; 1979;
  11. Bielski RJ, Friedel RO. Prediction of tricyclic antidepressant response. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976;33:1479–1489
  12. Blackburn IM, Bishop S, Glen AIM, Whalley LJ, Christie JE. The efficacy of cognitive therapy in depression: a treatment trial using cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy, each alone and in combination. Br J Psychiatry. 1981;139:181–189
  13. Blackburn IM, Moore RG. Controlled acute and follow-up trial of cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy in out-patients with recurrent depression. Br J Psychiatry. 1997;171:328–334
  14. Blashfield RK, Morey LC. The classification of depression through cluster analysis. Compr Psychiatry. 1979;20:516–527
  15. Bryant, M.J., Simons, A.D., Thase, M.E. Therapist skill and patient variables in homework compliance: controlling an uncontrolled variable in cognitive therapy outcome research. Cog. Ther. Res. (in press).
  16. Burns DD, Nolen-Hoeksema S. Coping styles, homework compliance, and the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1991;59:305–311
  17. Burns DD, Rude S, Simons AD, Bates MA, Thase ME. Does learned resourcefulness predict the response to cognitive behavioral therapy for depression?. Cog Ther Res. 1994;18:277–291
  18. Buysse DJ, Jarrett DB, Miewald JM, Kupfer DJ, Greenhouse JB. Minute-by-minute analysis of REM sleep timing in major depression. Biol Psychiatry. 1990;28:911–925
  19. Buysse DJ, Kupfer DJ. Diagnostic and research applications of electroencephalographic sleep studies in depression: conceptual and methodological issues. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1990;178:405–414
  20. Carney MWP, Sheffield BF. Depression and the Newcastle scales: their relationship to Hamilton′s scale. Br J Psychiatry. 1972;121:35–40
  21. Carney MWP, Roth M, Garside RF. The diagnosis of depressive syndromes and the prediction of ECT response. Br J Psychiatry. 1966;111:659–674
  22. Carroll BJ. Psychopathology and neurobiology of manic-depressive disorders. In:  Carroll BJ,  Barrett JE editor. Psychopathology and the Brain. New York: Raven Press; 1991;
  23. Castonguay LG, Hayes AM, Goldfried MR, DeRubeis RJ. The focus of therapist interventions in cognitive therapy for depression. Cog Ther Res. 1995;19:485–503
  24. Castonguay LG, Goldfried MR, Wiser S, Raue PJ, Hayes AM. Predicting the effect of cognitive therapy for depression: a study of unique and common factors. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64:497–504
  25. Clerc GE, Ruimy P, Verdau-Pailles J. A double-blind comparison of venlafaxine and fluoxetine in patients hospitalized for major depression and melancholia. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1994;9:139–143on behalf of the Venlafaxine French Inpatient Study Group
  26. Corbishley M, Beutler L, Quan S, Bamford C, Meredith K, Scogin F. Rapid eye movement density and latency and dexamethasone suppression as predictors of treatment response in depressed older adults. Curr Ther Res. 1990;47:846–859
  27. Danish University Antidepressant Group . Citalopram: clinical effect profile in comparison with clomipramine. A controlled multicenter study. Psychopharmacol. 1986;90:131–138
  28. Danish University Antidepressant Group . Paroxetine: a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor showing better tolerance, but weaker antidepressant effect than clomipramine in a controlled multicenter study. J. Affective Disord. 1990;18:289–299
  29. Clinical Practice Guideline Number 5. Depression in Primary Care. Rockville: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Health Care Policy and Research,; 1993;Treatment of Major Depression. AHCPR Publication93-0551
  30. DeRubeis RJ, Feeley M. Determinants of change in cognitive therapy for depression. Cog Ther Res. 1990;14:469–482
  31. DeRubeis RJ. Cognitive therapy is as effective as medications for severe depression: a mega-analysis. Presentation at the Annual Convention of the Association for The Advancement of Behaviour Therapy. 1997;
  32. DiMascio A, Klerman GL, Weissman MM, Prusoff BA, Neu C, Moore PA. A control group for psychotherapy research in acute depression: one solution to ethical and methodological issue. J Psychiatr Res. 1979;15:189–197
  33. Drevets WC. Functional neuroimaging studies of depression: The anataomy of melancholia. Ann Rev Med. 1998;49:341–361
  34. Elkin I, Gibbons RD, Shea MT, Sotsky SM, Watkins JT, Pilkonis PA, et al. Initial severity and differential treatment outcome in the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1995;63:841–847
  35. Elkin I, Shea MT, Watkins JT, Imber SD, Sotsky SM, Collins JF, et al. National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program: general effectiveness and treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:971–983
  36. Endicott J, Spitzer RL, Fleiss JL, Cohen J. The Global Assessment Scale. A procedure for measuring the overall severity of psychiatric disturbance. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1976;33:766–771
  37. Feinberg M, Carroll BJ. Separations of subtypes of depression using discriminant analysis: I. Separation of unipolar endogenous depression from non-endogenous depression.. Br J Psychiatry. 1982;140:384–391
  38. Feinberg M, Carroll BJ. Biological ‘markers’ for endogenous depression: effect of age, severity of illness, weight loss, and polarity. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984;41:1080–1085
  39. Fennell MJV, Teasdale JD, Jones S, Damle A. Distraction in neurotic and endogenous depression: an investigation of negative thinking in major depressive disorder. Psychological Med. 1987;17:441–452
  40. Free ML, Oei TPS. Biological and psychological processes in the treatment and maintenance of depression. Clin Psychol Rev. 1989;9:653–688
  41. Freud S. Mourning and melancholia. In:  Strachey J editors. Completed Psychological Works. standard ed. London: Hogarth Press; 1917;
  42. Gillespie RD. The clinical differentiation of types of depression. Guy′s Hosp Rep. 1929;9:306–344
  43. Gold PW, Pigott TA, Kling-Kalogeras K, Chrousos GP. Basic and clinical studies with corticotropin-releasing hormone implications for a possible role in panic disorder. Psychiatr Clin North Am. 1988;11:327–335
  44. Greden JF, Gardner R, King D, Grunhaus L, Carroll BJ, Kronfol Z. Dexamethasone suppression test in antidepressant treatment of melancholia. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1983;40:493–500
  45. Guy W. In: ECDEU assessment manual for psychopharmacology, revised. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (ADM. Rockville: National Institute of Mental Health; 1976;p. 76–338
  46. Hamilton M. A rating scale for depression. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 1960;23:56–62
  47. Hersen M, Bellack AS, Himmelhoch JM, Thase ME. Effects of social skill training, amitriptyline, and psychotherapy in unipolar depressed women. Behav Ther. 1984;15:21–40
  48. Hollon SD, DeRubeis RJ, Evans MD, Wiemer MJ, Garvey MJ, Grove WM, et al. Cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy for depression singly and in combination. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1992;49:774–781
  49. Jackson SW. Melancholia and depression from hippocratic times to modern time. New Haven: Yale University Press; 1986;
  50. Jarrett RB, Rush AJ. Short-term psychotherapy of depressive disorders: current status and future directions. Psychiatry. 1994;57:115–132
  51. Jarrett RB, Rush AJ, Khatami M, Roffwarg HP. Does the pretreatment polysomnogram predict response to cognitive therapy in depressed outpatients? A preliminary report.. Psychiatry Res. 1990;33:285–299
  52. Joyce PR, Paykel ES. Predictors of drug response in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:89–99
  53. Kellner CH, Rubinow DR, Gold PW, Post RM. Relationship of cortisol hypersecretion to brain CT scan alterations in depressed patients. Psychiatry Res. 1983;8:191–197
  54. Kendell RE, Gourlay J. The clinical distinction between psychotic and neutoci depressions. Br J Psychiatry. 1970;117:257–266
  55. Klein DF. Preventing hung juries about therapy studies. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1996;64:81–87
  56. Klein DF. Endogenomorphic depression-a conceptual and terminological revision. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1974;31:447–454
  57. Klerman GL, Weissman MM, Rounsaville BJ, Chevron ES. Interpersonal psychotherapy of depression. New York: Basic Books, Inc; 1984;
  58. Klerman GL, Weissman MM. Increasing rates of depression. JAMA. 1989;261:2229–2235
  59. Kovacs M, Rush AJ, Rush AT, Hollon SD. Depressed outpatients treatment with cognitive therapy or pharmacotherapy: a one-year follow-up. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1981;38:33–39
  60. Kraepelin E. Manic-Depressive Insanity and Paranoia. New York: E and S Livingston; 1921;
  61. Kramer M. The selective mood regulatory function of dreaming: an update and revision. In:  Moffitt AR,  Kramer M,  Hoffman RF editor. The Function of Dreaming. Albany: State University of New York Press; 1993;
  62. Kupfer DJ, Ehlers CL. Two roads to rapid eye movement. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1989;46:945–948
  63. States of depression: their clinical and aetiological differentiation. Br Med J. 1938;2:875–878
  64. Maes M, Meltzer HY. The serotonin hypothesis of major depression. In:  Bloom FE,  Kupfer DJ editor. Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress. New York: Raven Press, Ltd; 1995;
  65. Mapother E. Manic depressive psychosis. Br Med J. 1926;2:872–879
  66. Markowitz JC, Kocsis JH, Fishman B, Spielman KA, Jacobsberg LB, Frances AJ, et al. Treatment of depressive-symptoms in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:452–457
  67. McKnight DL, Nelson-Gray RO, Barnhill J. Dexamethasone suppression test and response to cognitive therapy and antidepressant medication. Behav Ther. 1992;23:99–111
  68. Meador-Woodruff JH, Greden JF, Grunhaus L, Haskett RF. Severity of depression and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation: Identification of contributing factor. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 1990;81:364–371
  69. Mendels J, Cochrane C. The nosology of depression: the endogenous-reactive concept. Am J Psychiatry. 1968;124:1–11
  70. Murphy GE, Simons AD, Wetzel RD, Lustman PJ. Cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy. Singly and together in the treatment of depression.. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984;41:33–41
  71. Neimeyer RA, Feixas G. The role of homework and skill acquisition in the outcome of group cognitive therapy for depression. Behav Ther. 1990;21:281–292
  72. Nelson JC, Charney DS, Quinlan DM. Characteristics of autonomous depression. J Nerv Ment Dis. 1980;168:637–643
  73. Nemeroff CB. New vistas in neuropeptide research in neuropsychiatry: focus on corticotropin-releasing factor. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1992;6:69–75
  74. Nofzinger EA, Schwartz RM, Reynolds CF, Thase ME, Jennings RJ, Frank E, et al. Affect intensity and phasic REM sleep in depressed men before and after treatment with cognitive behavior therapy. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1994;62:83–91
  75. Parker G, Hadzi-Pavlovic D, Boyce P. Endogenous depression as a construct: a quantitative analysis of the literature and a study of clinician judgements. Aust NZ J Psychiatry. 1989;23:357–368
  76. Paykel ES, Klerman GL, Prusoff BA. Prognosis of depression and the endogenous-neurotic distinction. Psychol Med. 1974;4:57–64
  77. Persons JB, Thase ME, Crits-Christoph P. The role of psychotherapy in the treatment of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:283–290
  78. Prusoff BA, Weissman MM, Klerman GL, Rounsaville BJ. Research diagnostic criteria subtypes of depression. Their role as predictors of differential response to psychotherapy and drug treatment. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1980;37:796–801
  79. Reynolds CF, Kupfer DJ, Hoch CC, Houck PR, Stack JA, Berman SR, et al. Sleep deprivation as a probe in the elderly. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1987;44:982–990
  80. Ribeiro SCM, Tandon R, Grunhaus L, Greden JF. The DST as a predictor of outcome in depression: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry. 1993;150:1618–1629
  81. Robbins DR, Alessi NE, Colfer MV. Treatment of adolescents with major depression: implications of the DST and the melancholic clinical subtype. J Affective Disord. 1989;17:99–104
  82. Roose SP, Glassman AH, Attia E, Woodring S. Comparative efficacy of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclics in the treatment of melancholia. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:1735–1739
  83. In: Roper Report. New York: Roper Organization; 1986;p. 86–88
  84. Rubinow DR, Post RM, Savard R, Gold PW. Cortisol hypersecretion and cognitive impairment in depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1984;41:279–283
  85. Rush AJ, Beck AT, Kovacs M, Hollon SD. Comparative efficacy of cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depressed outpatients. Cog Ther Res. 1977;1:17–37
  86. Rush AJ, Erman MK, Giles DE, Schlesser MA, Carpenter G, Vasavada N, et al. Polysomnographic findings in recently drug-free and clinically remitted depressed patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:878–884
  87. Rush AJ, Giles DE, Jarrett RB, Feldman-Koffler F, Debus JR, Weissenburger J, et al. Reduced REM latency predicts response to tricyclic medication in depressed outpatients. Biol Psychiatry. 1989;26:61–72
  88. Rush AJ, Weissenburger JE. Melancholic symptom features and DSM-IV. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:489–498
  89. Rush, A.J., Giles, D.E., Schlesser, M.A., Orsulak, P.J., Weissenburger, J.E., Fulton, C.L., Fairchild, C.J., Roffwarg, H.P. Dexamethasone response, thyrotropin-releasing hormone stimulations, rapid eye movement latency, and subtypes of depression. Biol. Psychiatry 41, 915-928.
  90. Sapolsky RM, Plotsky PM. Hypercortisolism and its possible neural bases. Biol Psychiatry. 1990;27:937–952
  91. Scott AIF, Freeman CPL. Edinburgh primary care depression study: treatment outcome, patient satisfaction, and cost after 16 weeks. Br Med J. 1992;304:883–887
  92. Seligman MEP. The effectiveness of psychotherapy. The Consumer Reports study.. Am Psychol. 1995;50:965–974
  93. Shea MT, Pilkonis PA, Beckham E, Collins JF, Elkin I, Sotsky SM, et al. Personality disorders and treatment outcome in the NIMH treatment of depression collaborative research program. Am J Psychiatry. 1990;147:711–718
  94. Simons AD, Thase ME. Biological markers, treatment outcome, and 1-year follow-up of endogenous depression: electroencephalographic sleep studies and response to cognitive therapy. J Consult Clin Psychiatry. 1992;60:392–401
  95. Sotsky SM, Glass DR, Shea MT, Pilkonis PA, Collins JF, Elkin E, et al. Patient predictors of response to psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy: findings of the NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148:997–1008
  96. Sotsky SM, Simmens SJ. Pharmacotherapy response in atypical depression: findings from the NIMH Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. In:  Widiger TA,  Frances AJ,  Pincus HA,  Ross R,  Frist MB,  Davis W,  Kline M editor. Dsm-IV Sourcebook. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association Press; 1996;
  97. Spitzer RL, Endicott J, Robins E. Research diagnostic criteria: rationale and reliability. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1978;35:773–782
  98. Stewart JW, Garfinkel R, Nunes EV, Donovan S. Atypical features and treatment response in the National Institute of Mental Health Treatment of Depression Collaborative Research Program. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1998;18:429–434
  99. Svendsen K, Christensen PG. Duration of REM sleep latency as a predictor of effect of antidepressant therapy: a preliminary report. Acta Psychiatr. 1981;64:238–243
  100. Teasdale JD, Fennell MJV, Hibbert GA, Amies PL. Cognitive therapy for major depressive disorder in primary care. Br J Psychiatry. 1984;144:400–406
  101. Thase ME. Cognitive and behavioral treatments for depression: a review of recent developments. In:  Ayd FJ,  Taylor IJ,  Taylor BT editor. Affective Disorders Reassessed: 1983. Baltimore: Ayd Medical Communications; 1983;
  102. Thase ME, Hersen M, Bellack AS, Himmelhoch JM, Kupfer DJ. Validation of a Hamilton subscale for endogenomorphic depression. J Affective Disord. 1983;5:267–278
  103. Thase ME, Hersen M, Bellack AS, Himmelhoch JM, Kornblith SJ, Greenwald DP. Social skills training and endogenous depression. J Behav Ther Exp Psychiatry. 1984;15:101–108
  104. Thase ME, Kupfer DJ, Ulrich RF. Electroencephalographic sleep in psychotic depression: a valid subtype?. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1986;43:886–893
  105. Thase ME, Kupfer DJ. Current status of EEG sleep in the assessment and treatment of depression. In:  Burrows GD,  Werry JS editor. Advances in Human Psychopharmacology. Greenwich: JAI Press, Inc; 1987;
  106. Thase ME, Simons AD, Cahalane J, McGeary J, Harden T. Severity of depression and response to cognitive behavior therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 1991;148:784–789
  107. Thase ME, Simons AD, McGeary J, Cahalane JF, Hughes C. Harden, T. and Friedman, E. (1992) Relapse after cognitive behavior therapy of depression: potential implications for longer courses of treatment. Am J Psychiatry. 1992;149:1046–1052
  108. Thase ME, Simons AD, Reynolds CF. Psychobiological correlates of poor response to cognitive behavior therapy: potential indications for antidepressant pharmacotherapy. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1993;29:293–301
  109. Thase ME, Reynolds CF, Frank E, Simons AD, McGeary J, Fasiczka AL, et al. Do depressed men and women respond similarly to cognitive behavior therapy?. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:500–505
  110. Thase ME, Reynolds CF, Frank E, Jennings JR, Nofzinger E, Fasiczka AL, et al. Polysomnographic studies of unmedicated depressed men before and after treatment with cognitive behavior therapy. Am J Psychiatry. 1994;151:1615–1622
  111. Thase ME, Howland RH. Biological processes in depression: An updated review and integration. In:  Beckham EE,  Leber WR editor. Handbook of Depression. New York: The Guilford Press; 1995;
  112. Thase ME, Simons AD, Reynolds CF. Abnormal electroencephalographic sleep profiles in major depression. Association with response to cognitive behavior therapy. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1996;53:99–108
  113. Thase ME, Dubé S, Bowler K, Howland RH, Myers JE, Friedman E, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical activity and response to cognitive behavior therapy in unmedicated, hospitalized depressed patients. Am J Psychiatry. 1996;153:886–891
  114. Thase ME, Kupfer DJ, Fasiczka AL, Buysse DJ, Simons AD, Frank E. Identifying an abnormal electroencephalographic sleep profile to characterize major depressive disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 1997;41:964–973
  115. Thase ME, Greenhouse JB, Frank E, Reynolds CF, Pilkonis PA, Hurley K, et al. Treatment of major depression with psychotherapy or psychotherapy-pharmacotherapy combinations. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1997;54:1009–1015
  116. Thase ME, Buysse DJ, Frank E, Cherry CR, Cornes CL, Mallinger AG, et al. Which depressed patients will respond to interpersonal psychotherapy? The role of abnormal electroencephalographic sleep profiles.. Am J Psychiatry. 1997;154:502–509
  117. Thase ME. Depression, sleep, and antidepressants. J Clin Psychiatry. 1998;59:55–65
  118. Thase ME, Fasiczka AL, Berman SR, Simons AD, Reynolds CF. Electroencephalographic sleep profiles before and after cognitive behavior therapy of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1998;55:138–144
  119. Thase, M.E., Frank, E., Kornstein, S., Yonkers, K.A. (in press) Sex-related differences in response to treatment of depression. In: E. Frank (Ed.), Sex, Society, and Madness: Gender and Psychopathology. American Psychiatric Press, Washington, D.C.
  120. West ED, Dally PJ. Effects of iproniazid in depressive syndromes. Br Med J. 1959;1:1491–1494
  121. Whybrow PC, Akiskal HS, McKinney WT. Mood Disorders. Towards a New Psychobiology. New York: Plenum Press; 1984;
  122. Young EA. Glucocorticoid cascade hypothesis revisited: role of gonadal steroids. Depression. 1995;3:20–27
  123. Zimmerman M, Spitzer RL. Melancholia: from DSM-III to DSM-III-R. Am J Psychiatry. 1989;146:20–28

PII: S0165-0327(99)00033-6

Journal of Affective Disorders
Volume 54, Issue 1 , Pages 1-19 , July 1999