Research paperThe impact of psychosis on brain anatomy in bipolar disorder: A structural MRI study
Introduction
Bipolar disorder (BD) is a severe and chronic neuropsychiatric condition that affects mood regulation, being characterized by recurring depressive, manic or hypomanic, mixed and euthymic phases. This complex illness is associated with heterogeneous clinical features (Phillips and Kupfer, 2013) and variable patterns of cognitive deficits (Martino et al., 2008), ultimately influencing patients’ clinical and functional outcome.
In the search for objective neurobiological markers of BD, advanced neuroimaging techniques have been increasingly employed. Indeed, the neural correlates of BD have been extensively investigated using Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI), with results showing structural alterations in BD patients compared to healthy controls (HC) (Arnone et al., 2008, Ellison-Wright and Bullmore, 2010, Hallahan et al., 2011, Selvaraj et al., 2012). However, taken together, the region-based and voxel-based neuroanatomical studies on BD led to rather inconsistent results.
This inconsistency might be related to the heterogeneous clinical manifestations within the BD spectrum, which were not adequately considered by most of the studies. In this regard, a feature that is worth of consideration is the presence of psychotic symptoms, which seems to have clinical, cognitive and psychosocial implications (Coryell et al., 2001, Glahn et al., 2007). For instance, a recent work from our group has shown that lifetime psychosis in BD is related to a worse socio-demographic and clinical profile (Dell'Osso et al., 2017). Literature evidence shows that more than half of BD patients experience psychotic symptoms at least once in the lifetime, more frequently during manic episodes (Goodwin and Jamison, 2007). Among patients with BD type I, prevalence rates of psychosis of up to 68% have been reported (Keck et al., 2003); as expected, psychotic symptoms occur in a lower percentage of BD type II patients, which was estimated in a range up to 45% (Mazzarini et al., 2010).
Besides influencing the choice of the pharmacological therapy, the presence of psychotic features was found to be associated with an earlier age of onset (Schurhoff et al., 2000), greater cross-sectional symptom severity and long-term morbidity (Coryell et al., 2001), as well as increased D2 dopamine receptor density (Pearlson et al., 1995). Family studies provided consistent evidence that psychotic symptoms aggregate in BD pedigrees and further suggested that liability to psychosis can be transmitted across different diagnoses within the psychotic spectrum, supporting the hypothesis that psychotic BD is associated with “overlapping” genes between BD and schizophrenia (SCZ) (Goes et al., 2008). Indeed, over recent years, researchers investigating the genetic bases of BD overcame the traditional diagnostic category by posing attention to different phenotypes within BD, with special interest towards psychotic features (Craddock et al., 2005, Park et al., 2004, Potash et al., 2003). A gradient of polygenic risk score association across SCZ and BD indexed by the presence and nature of psychosis has been recently demonstrated, with BD patients with mood-incongruent psychotic features carrying the highest burden of SCZ risk alleles (Allardyce et al., 2017).
Psychotic and non-psychotic BD may indeed represent different subtypes of the illness, relying on specific neuroanatomical bases. Therefore, in neuroimaging studies, the integration of BD patients with and without psychosis in a single diagnostic group might cause misinterpretations and obscure subgroup characterization (Strasser et al., 2005). Taking into consideration psychotic features can ameliorate the identification of the structural markers of BD, in line with the dimensional framework of Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) (Insel et al., 2010).
The largest study on cortical thickness and cortical surface area in BD, recently published from the ENIGMA group, showed an association between lifetime psychosis and deficits of cortical surface area in selective frontal and temporal regions (Hibar et al., 2017). Specifically, adolescents with psychotic BD showed deficits in right caudal anterior cingulate cortex and left inferior temporal gyrus compared to adolescents with non-psychotic BD, whereas adults with psychotic BD were characterized by deficits in right frontal pole compared to non-psychotic BD patients in the same age range.
Mixed results came from the investigation of gray matter (GM) volume in these patients. Indeed, there is just a handful of MRI studies that compared psychotic and non-psychotic BD patients in terms of GM volume (Chen et al., 2007, Ekman et al., 2017, Keramatian et al., 2016, Laidi et al., 2015, Mamah et al., 2016, Neves et al., 2016, Strasser et al., 2005, Womer et al., 2014). As recently summarized by our group (Maggioni et al., 2017), the findings of these studies suggest that psychotic and non-psychotic BD patients show specific volume alterations, enhanced in the psychotic group, when compared to controls. The results from the direct comparisons between the two BD subtypes suggest that psychosis is associated with smaller cortical volume, especially in the frontal area, and larger volume in selective regions of the basal ganglia. Additionally, within the psychotic BD spectrum, mood-incongruent features have been recently associated with enhanced GM volume alterations, in regions that seem to be involved in SCZ (Keramatian et al., 2016).
The above-mentioned results support the hypothesis that BD with psychotic features may represent a neurobiologically homogeneous subphenotype of the disorder; however, firm conclusions cannot be drawn given the limited number of studies, smaller sample sizes and inconsistencies in the results. The present work was undertaken to gain more robust understanding of the neuroanatomical underpinnings of psychosis. By adopting an unbiased exploratory perspective, we investigated whole-brain GM volume in a large structural MRI dataset of HC and patients with psychotic and non-psychotic BD, which was collected across different Research Centers, the IRCCS Fondazione Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico in Milan, Italy, and the University of British Columbia affiliated Hospitals in Vancouver, Canada. The Canadian dataset was obtained from the Systematic Treatment Optimization Program for Early Mania (STOP-EM), whose protocol is described elsewhere (Yatham et al., 2009). Structural and functional MRI studies on subsets of the multicenter dataset have been recently published (Dell'Osso et al., 2015, Keramatian et al., 2016).
Section snippets
Subjects
One-hundred seventy-one subjects (114 BD patients and 57 HC) were recruited across the two research centers. Preliminarily to the MRI acquisition, all the subjects signed a written informed consent to the protocol, in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and the local ethical committee guidelines. After a quality check procedure, 164 subjects were selected for the analysis. The analysis of the entire dataset (Dataset1, n = 164) was accompanied by the analysis of a reduced dataset of
Demographic and clinical information
The demographic and clinical details of Dataset1 are listed in Table 1. The dataset was composed of 56 HC (29 males, range 18–62 years, 25.3 ± 7.37 years), 46 non-psychotic BD patients (23 males, range 16–65 years, 33.67 ± 11.75 years) and 62 psychotic BD patients (27 males, range 17–51 years, 27.27 ± 8.70 years). Sex ratio (M/F) was 0.51 in HC, 0.5 in non-psychotic BD and 0.44 in psychotic BD (χ2 = 0.89, not significant). The ANOVA showed significant age differences across groups (F = 11.04, p
Discussion
The present work focused on the GM volume analysis of a large structural MRI dataset composed of BD patients, with and without lifetime psychosis, and healthy reference subjects. Our main interest was to assess whether psychotic symptoms in BD are associated with a specific neurobiological architecture, ultimately verifying the importance to classify BD based on the psychotic dimension.
To provide robust evidence on the GM volume correlates of psychotic and non-psychotic BD, overcoming the low
Conclusions
Despite the pathophysiology of BD has been largely investigated in the last decades, the neuroanatomical underpinnings of this complex disorder are still debated. The variety of clinical manifestations in BD may have contributed to the heterogeneity of neuroimaging findings on BD patients (Ellison-Wright and Bullmore, 2010). A relevant clinical variable is represented by psychotic symptoms, which have an impact on the patients’ clinical outcome and may have specific cerebral features.
In the
Acknowledgement
Grant support of Dr. Maggioni was provided by the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under Grant agreement no. 602450 (IMAGEMEND Project) and by the Fondazione Cariplo (grant n° 2016-0908). Prof. Paolo Brambilla was partly supported by the Italian Ministry of Health (RF-2011‐02352308).
Role of the funding source
Grant support of Dr. Maggioni was provided by the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme for research, technological development and demonstration under Grant agreement no. 602450 (IMAGEMEND Project) and by the Fondazione Cariplo (grant n° 2016-0908). Prof. Paolo Brambilla was partly supported by the Italian Ministry of Health (RF-2011‐02352308).
Ethical statement
This research involves human participants. Preliminarily to the MRI study, all the subjects signed a written informed consent to the protocol, in
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2021, Journal of Affective DisordersCitation Excerpt :Our results in PBD patients with psychotic features were in line with prior evidence which also confirmed extensively distributed GM volume/density deficits in adults with psychotic BD compared with HC (Wang et al., 2018). Using the whole-brain approach, although not consistent, an overwhelming number of studies showed altered GMVs in the bilateral PFC involving IFG (Altamura et al., 2017), left PG (Altamura et al., 2018), bilateral STG (Cui et al., 2011), as well as subcortical regions, including the bilateral parahippocampus (Ivleva et al., 2013), and bilateral putamen (Chen et al., 2012) in adults with psychotic BD relative to HCs. It was interesting that genetic studies had indicated that the two major, classically distinct forms of mental disorders, schizophrenia and BD, might share causative factors in common (Moskvina et al., 2009).
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2021, Schizophrenia ResearchCitation Excerpt :Thus, one of these abnormalities, or a combination of them, could potentially classify PSD along a continuum of symptom burden or cognitive impairment. It has been well established that PSD exhibit atrophy, including larger ventricles, reduced gray matter volume (potentially driven by cortical thinning; Rimol et al., 2012), and abnormal white matter connections, with the greatest atrophy occurring in fronto-temporal lobes (Bakhshi and Chance, 2015; Birur et al., 2017; Maggioni et al., 2017; Altamura et al., 2018; Vita et al., 2012; Ivleva et al., 2013; Gupta et al., 2015; van Erp et al., 2018). Decreased cortical volume in PSD is thought to be due to reduced neurites (axons and dendrites), neuronal number/size, neuropil (space between cells; i.e., reduced neuropil hypothesis; Selemon and Goldman-Rakic, 1999; Nazeri et al., 2020), and/or abnormal myelination, potentially supporting an underlying progressive neurodevelopmental abnormality rather than neurodegeneration per se due to the absence of gliosis or gross inflammatory processes (Bakhshi and Chance, 2015; Harrison et al., 2018; Iritani, 2013).
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2021, Asian Journal of PsychiatryCitation Excerpt :The number of studies of first episode patients with limited medication effect are inadequate. In addition, the alterations of brain network properties may differ between BD patients with and without psychotic symptoms (Altamura et al., 2018). Thus, studying BD patients with psychotic symptoms may be more applicable.
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The two authors contributed equally to the study.