ReviewState–trait anxiety inventory (STAI) scores during pregnancy following intervention with complementary therapies
Introduction
Pregnancy inevitably causes upheavals to many aspects of a woman’s life. Anxieties and fears concerning alterations to her daily life, and her own and her baby’s health are normal (Clark et al., 2009, Cantwell and Cox, 2003), but some mothers may become distressed if they feel unable to cope with this adjustment to impending motherhood (Furber et al., 2009). Furthermore, although there are conflicting data, antenatal anxiety, independent of depression, has been associated with adverse effects to both the mother and infant. Antenatal anxiety may be a risk factor for maternal mental health problems, such as an increased likelihood of postnatal depression (Coelho et al., 2011, Austin et al., 2007) and impaired bonding (Lindgren, 2001, Condon and Corkindale, 1997), and obstetric complications, such as length of labour (Lederman et al., 1978) and premature delivery (Hobel et al., 1999). Furthermore, longitudinal studies have shown the infants of mothers with elevated anxiety while pregnant to be at greater risk of behavioural problems as neonates and toddlers (Austin et al., 2005, Van den Bergh and Marcoen, 2004, O'Connor et al., 2002). The mechanism by which increased anxiety may precipitate these adverse outcomes is unclear, although over-stimulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, with elevated secretion of glucocorticoids such as cortisol, has been cited as a key component (Sarkar et al., 2008, Talge et al., 2007). This increased physiological stress response may interfere with fetal development with studies showing fetuses of mothers reporting high anxiety exhibiting differential blood flow, heart rate variability and motor activity compared to fetuses of mothers experiencing low anxiety (Sjostrom et al., 1997, Sjostrom et al., 2002, Groome et al., 1995; Van den Bergh, 1990, Field et al., 2003).
Although a growing body of evidence highlights the potential adverse outcomes of increased maternal anxiety, pharmacological interventions to counter such effects are limited by side effects, pharmacokinetic alterations in pregnancy, and risk of fetal toxicity. Consequently, the National Institute of Clinical Health and Excellence (NICE) in the UK has called (2007) for randomised controlled trials to identify non-pharmacological interventions that may prevent the escalation of sub-threshold anxiety symptoms into a clinical diagnosis, and improve a woman’s ability to cope with day-to-day life in both the antenatal and postnatal periods.
In determining whether an intervention is effective, it is important that the outcome measures chosen to assess anxiety are robust and valid. In a recent meta-analysis, the Spielberger State–Trait Inventory (STAI) was found to be by far the most widely used questionnaire to measure anxiety in pregnancy (Spielberger et al., 1970, Spielberger, 1983, Littleton et al., 2007). The STAI is a 40-item scale, using a 4-point Likert scale for each item. The scale can be used to measure both trait anxiety (how dispositionally anxious a person is across time and situations) and state anxiety (how anxious a person is feeling at a particular moment) as it consists of two separate sub-scales (STAI-T and STAI-S, respectively) which each have 20 items. The STAI has been repeatedly used in intervention trials with non-pregnant individuals, with reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alphas) of 0.93 for the trait scale and 0.95 for the state scale (van der Ploeg et al., 1980, Spielberger et al., 1970). However the STAI was validated in non-pregnant individuals (Spielberger et al., 1970) and STAI-S scores reported by pregnant women in the third trimester were significantly higher than in non-pregnant women, matched for age, level of education and socio-economic status (Fatoye et al., 2004). This disparity may be due to pregnancy being a significant life event, which may provoke changes in trait and state anxiety (Hundley et al., 1998). Conversely, due to the physiological changes that occur during pregnancy, some items on the questionnaire may lose their face validity in a pregnant population and reflect somatic features of pregnancy rather than maternal mood, and consequently provide an unrepresentative score. Ambiguity in interpreting certain items when pregnant is a problem that has been highlighted through factorial analysis of the Beck Depression Inventory (Salamero et al., 1994). Thus, non-anxious pregnant women experiencing pregnancy-specific physical strain and somatic symptoms may show similar scores to someone with high anxiety but no somatic symptoms due to different interpretations of the same word (e.g., ‘tense’, ‘strained’, ‘comfortable’). Consequently when non-pregnancy-specific tools of assessment are used in a pregnant population, the somatic symptoms experienced by many pregnant women may lead to such women achieving high scores and the mistaken interpretation that anxiety disorders are more prevalent in pregnant women compared to the general population (Faisal-Cury and Menezes, 2007). With regard to intervention studies implemented in pregnancy, it is important to determine the extent that scores on measures such as the STAI-S can be changed or whether scores will remain ‘fixed’ or increase due to the escalation of somatic symptoms as gestation progresses.
Maternal anxiety, when measured by both STAI subscales, is observed to fluctuate during pregnancy. According to Haddad et al., 1985, state anxiety decreased in the second trimester but increased again in the third trimester. The concept of a U-shaped curve in the pattern of state anxiety was further validated by both Teixeira et al. (2009) and Bhagwanani et al. (1997), who showed state anxiety levels peaked in the first and third trimesters, while depression decreased throughout pregnancy. Several studies have shown that STAI-S scores are significantly increased in the third trimester compared to the first and second trimesters (Gunning et al., 2010, Da Costa et al., 1999). Trait anxiety has shown similar changes across the course of pregnancy, with Haddad et al., 1985 reporting a decrease in STAI-T scores between 16 and 28 weeks gestation, and STAI-T scores also being shown to positively correlate with gestational age (Albrecht and Rankin, 1989). The course of anxiety in pregnancy as measured by the STAI may be of clinical importance; after controlling for obstetric risk, pregnancy specific anxiety, ethnicity, parity and life events, Glynn et al. (2008) linked an increase in STAI-S score between the second and third trimester to an elevated risk of premature delivery. Interventions to curb increased third trimester anxiety may reduce the potentially adverse effects of antenatal anxiety upon mother and infant.
In light of the NICE guidelines’ (2007) call for more randomised controlled trials of non-pharmacological interventions, the aim of this review was to catalogue the range of scores reported in published studies that tested complementary therapies and utilised the STAI-S to monitor the effect on anxiety in pregnancy. This information will aid future studies by providing the expected range and, importantly, the likely change in STAI-S score following different types of non-pharmacological intervention in STAI-measured anxiety of pregnant women. This review does not aim at providing a comprehensive overview of STAI scores at specific time points in pregnancy but solely in intervention studies to give an indication of possible change.
Section snippets
Search strategy
Studies were retrieved from several databases [EMBASE, MEDLINE and PsychINFO (as the STAI was created in 1970, studies published between 1970 and April 2012 were examined)] using combinations of the key words “STAI”, “state anxiety”, “pregnancy”, “anxiety” “maternal” “stress”, “outcome” and “intervention”. The citation lists of relevant studies and reviews were checked for additional studies.
Inclusion/exclusion criteria
Studies eligible for inclusion had administered the STAI-S at two separate time points during pregnancy
Results
Ten studies of the 146 abstracts identified by the search strategy met the inclusion criteria. Eight of the studies were randomised controlled trials. The interventions tested by the studies meeting the inclusion criteria are shown in Table 1.
Discussion
The data summarised in this review shows the change in STAI-S scores reported in women taking part in interventions designed to reduce maternal anxiety and stress in pregnancy. Encouragingly, STAI-S scores were shown to be amenable to change in single session intervention studies and studies that examined the effects of multiple sessions of an intervention. Moreover, differences in mean change between intervention and control groups suggest that changes in score are not solely due to feelings
Summary
Scores for the state version of the STAI are amenable to change after participation in both single and multiple sessions of an intervention. A differential change in scores between the experimental groups and women who receive treatment as usual suggests these changes are not due simply to changes in pregnancy-specific symptoms. Furthermore, comparison with the direction of scores reported for other measures suggests that the STAI-S is not simply measuring emotional states such as depression or
Role of funding source
This review had no received no direct funding. This review was conducted while the first author was working on a PhD studentship funded by Tommy’s: the baby charity. Tommy’s: the baby charity had no involvement in the design, conduct or writing or the review, nor in the decision to submit this paper for publication.
Conflict of interest
No author for this paper has a conflict of interest.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Mrs Karen Clarke for proof reading of this review article.
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